Cognitive+Processing

"seek to describe the underlying mental processes inherent in the act of reading" (pg 151)
 * Cognitive Processing Perspective**

-explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved in the mind -information goes through different stages as it is being stored
 * Information Processing Theories and Models**

-information is first in the sensory #|register or sensory memory, the information is interpreted in this stage -information then goes to the working memory or #|short term memory -if information is used repeatedly goes to long term memory (if you don't use it, you lose it!)

-Types of long term memory -Episodic Memory: images of personal experiences -Semantic Memory: facts and general knowledge -Procedural Memory: how to do something -Flashbulb Memory: important events with visual/auditory memories

Examples: cramming for a test (forgetting the information after the test) vs. constantly using/referencing information (spiral curriculum in #|schools ) -helpful for understanding how information is processed and the capabilities of long and short term memories

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-"bottom up" information -processing models (from letter/sounds to sentence meaning) -lower order to higher order thinking -eye sees image of letter, the iconic image is processed in the scanner and looks for patterns in the lines and curves -once identified stored in the character #|register (decoder process now begins) -code book used to connect letter to phoneme (sound) -recorded as a sound on the phonemic tape -the sounds and letters are put together in the librarian, where the meaning to the word is found -lexicon is like a dictionary (has meanings to all words) and the libriarian gives the words meaning -sentences are put together in the primary memory -Merlin or magician puts meaning to the sentence (group of words) using the syntactic and semantic rules processor -TPWSGWTAU: where sentences go when successfully understood -deals with decoding and comprehension -first model to include stages (scanner, character register, decoder, code book, phonemic awareness tape, librarian, primary memory, TPWSGWTAU)
 * Gough's Model**

-helps teachers identify where the problem/difficulty in reading lies -from letter identification, letter/sound relationships, word meanings, comprehension -if students are spending too much energy decoding, comprehension will not be there

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-1974 -Most frequently presentied reading model in the 1980's -5 Major Components: 1) Visual memory- graphic input from text is processed 2) Phonological memory (PM)- where sounds are attached to visual images 3) Episodic memory- context is recorded 4) Semantic memory- where all other knowledge is stored 5) Attention memory- 2 parts: 1. Internal- unobservable (Example- appear to be paying attention but thinking of something else) 2. External- using ears and eyes to gather information (most frequently used)
 * LaBerge and Samuels's Automatic** Information **Processing Model**

Internal has 3 components- 1. Alertness- being active in deciphering message of text 2. Selectivity- decides which experience reader will attend to 3. Automaticity- ability to attend to a task w/o devoting full attention to it (Examples: knitting, typing, driving, and reading)

Samuel said- "1st words must be decoded, then they must be comprehended."- - this is difficult for beginning readers (Especially Kindergarten!) - decoding requires so much attendtion that it interferes with comprehension - re-reading is always a great strategy to help with this

This model is similar to Gough's Model- it uses cognitive processing (explaining underlying, unobservable processes), information processing (stage by stage retrieval of information), and "bottom's up" processing (begins with the beginning of processing skills and gets harder).

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In this section we were introduced to the contract of "bottoms-up" reading comprehension models, in fact, they describe this theory as "top-down."
 * Interactive and Interactive-Compensatory Models**

"Top-down" models of reading emphazie the importance of a reader's background knowledge during the reading process.

The background knowledge of the reader that supports this model is as followed:
 * knowledge about the topic
 * knowledge of text structure
 * knowledge of sentence structure
 * knowledge of word meanings (Vocabulary)
 * knowledge of letter-sound correspondences

The reader uses all the above sources of information to make hypotheses and predictions.

When the upcoming text supports the readers hypotheses then the reader processes a rapid and smooth pace.

When the upcoming text does not support the readers prediction, the reader begins to read slow and the reader tends docus more on the printed text.

It is termed "top down" due to the heavy reliance on the reader (not the text) during the reading process.

The idea behind the interactive model is that the reader uses all information that is provided at the same time during the reading process. Stanovich belivee that this model is compensatory, meaning, that is one procesor is not working well then the other processors comensate for it.

//*Ultimately, Rumelhart state that the reading process is neither bottom-up nor top-down but interactive.//

4 processors converge simultaneously: Syntactic, semantic, orthographic and lexical knowledge.

[] [|http://www.nadasisland.com/reading/#interact]


 * Phonological-Core Variable Difference Model **
 * Stanovich
 * In 1988, Stanovich termed two kinds of poor readers: "garden-variety" and "IQ discrepant"
 * "garden-variety" described readers whose reading performance was consistent with their IQ
 * "IQ discrepant" readers were those whose reading performance was significantly below what their IQ would predict
 * Both of these readers were identified as "dyslexic"
 * Proven to be false
 * His research demonstrated that IQ discrepancy was not an accurate way of identifying dyslexic readers.
 * He argued that the primary difference between normal and dyslexic individuals was determined by deficits in the phonological realm of cognitive functioning
 * Argued that dyslexia is a type of learning disability characterized by problems related to literacy learning in the absence of problems in other areas of cognitive functioning.
 * Emphasized that the locus of these learning problems was a phonological-processing deficit.
 * Stanvoich's academic consequences of being dyslexic:
 * Children with phonemic awareness deficits are slower to break the sound-symbol code of reading
 * As a result of this delay, these children are exposed to less text in school
 * Less exposure to text leads to fewer opportunities to practice reading, and less exposure to content knowledge
 * These cognitive problems lead to motivational issues because when children are less successful with early reading, they are less likely to want to read
 * Reading less further exasperates the cognitive differences between the reading-disabled students and their nondisabled peers
 * The reading-disabled children develop generalized cognitive deficits when compared to their nondisabled peers
 * Stanovich argued that phonological deficits were central to dyslexic readers' cognitive difficulties
 * This model is classified as a cognitive-processing model because the central feature of the model is a deficit in the phonological processor.

-first proposed in 1986 (by Rumelhart & McClelland) and regularly updated -two central features are (1) all cognitive info is stored as a series of connections between units and (2) these connections between units become stronger and faster with repeated pairings -this is a "connectionist" theory of reading; "connectionism": the conceptualization of storing info in the brain as a series of connections of differing strength; as pairings become more frequent, the strength/weight of the connection increases. -suggests four primary processors are central to the reading process: (diagram on p. 167) 1) orthographic processor- where print recognition occurs, and where the reading process begins; holds knowledge about lines, curves, angles, & space, all associated with info needed for letter/number identification [the "inter-letter associational unit system"- process through which the orthographic processor uses the strength of the connections between letters to activate letters that are likely to follow the initially identified letter and suppress letters that are unlikely to follow the initially identified letter; ex: h often follows t, but q doesn't often follow t; this helps readers gradually build rapid word identification skills; for this system to work, letter recognition must be automatic] 2) meaning processor- attaches meaning (vocabulary) to words identified in the orthographic processor; makes connections between new vocabulary and experiences, building off of the learner's schema 3) phonological processor- where the sounds associated with words are processed; in English, the smallest unit of sound is known as a phoneme, and in this processor each phoneme is considered a unit. These units are linked to one another according to Connectionism, meaning sounds that frequently occur together have stronger and faster connections with each other than sounds that rarely occur together; so the processor activates sounds that are likely to follow each other while suppressing sounds that are unlikely to do so; [2 benefits given by phonological processor; (1) alphabetic backup system- becomes activated when a person has an auditory familiarity with a word but hasn't seen it printed; this leads to "sounding out" the word and helps with identification and meaning; (2) running memory capability- provides "inner voice" when reading, allowing words to be briefly held in working memory and available for further processing as they're read.] 4) context processor- where reader constructs and monitors meanings of phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and full texts during reading process; this processor receives and delivers info to and from the meaning processor and then transferred back to the context processor for use in message construction
 * Parallel Distributed Processing Model**
 * (p. 166-171)**

Specifically regarding reading, this model says that successful reading depends on reader's abilities in four areas: automatic letter recognition, accurate phonemic processing, strong vocabulary knowledge, and the ability to construct meaningful messages during reading. The info amongst all the processors are organized based on connectionist ideas. If too much attention is used in the orthographic, meaning, and phonological processors, comprehension in the context processor will suffer.


 * Dual-Route Cascaded Model**
 * Coltheart et al. 1993
 * Computer based model that encodes text and outputs sound
 * Two routes for processing text input:
 * one for handling words that are already known to the reader called the "lexical route"
 * one for handling unknown words and nonwords called the "nonlexical route"
 * The term "cascaded" refers to the speed with which levels of the model within the two routes are activated during the reading process
 * Information is passed from one level to the next without waiting for full processing.

-Difficulty in phonological awareness and rapid naming -Speed is a distinct and separate entity uniquely contributing to reading failure -RAN (rapid naming naming test) can be used to predict which children will be at risk for reading difficulty -kids may not "just not know phonics", may have difficulty saying what they know
 * Double-Deficit Hypothesis**

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Education -can help learn how people read and identifying reading difficulty -Cognitive neuroscience: study of higher patterns of brain functioning through brain imaging technology (175) - studies how the brain is used during certain and how problems in these areas cause problems -PET position emission tomography: technique in which radioactive tracers are injected into experimental subjects who perform tasks (151) and identifies neuron activity areas (NOT APPROPRIATE FOR KIDS) -fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging, lie in a large machine, magnetic attracts to areas where blood flow is increased (signal of activity) -event-related potentials (ERPs) electrodes are attached to areas of the skull, tracks how quickly auditory or visual information is processed -left side of the brain: involved in reading -Pugh et al." occipitsl, temporal, and parietal areas are used for processing print -reading is improved with increased activity in the temporal-occipital region -dyslexic children show impaired imaging (organization of the right side of the brain is different) -proper testing that is appropriate for children could lead to early diagnosis of children
 * Neuroscience and**

focus on Guided reading lessons?--not using red robin reading sight word instruction: start with a list of 15 words, more words added when words are identifed within 2-3 seconds, then move to reading sight words within paragraphs -is ADD linked to some of these theories? There has been research on the connection between attention and comprension skills
 * Other Info**

Which theories helped you to understand readers in your own classroom struggles? How has this knowledge impacted or (will impact) your teaching strategies? What small grouping do you have in your classroom? Is it effective and how? What strategies do you use in your classroom to help with reading instruction? How has Letterland (phonics/letter program) and the Daily Five played a part in these theories and implementing reading strategies?
 * Possible Questions?**

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